How Can We Increase the College Completion Rate?
State of the Union Report
- The United States ranks 16th among the top 35 countries in college graduation rates.
- For 2023, the U.S. college graduation rate for adults aged 25–34 stands at approximately 50%.
- Approximately 40% of U.S. students who enroll in college do not complete their degree.
- South Korea leads the world with college attendance and completion as near-universal cultural expectations.
- The U.S. has among the highest college tuition costs globally, creating significant financial barriers to completion.
- Significant completion gaps exist across racial and income groups, with first-generation students most at risk of non-completion.
Section 1 Top 35 Countries with the Highest College Graduation Rates
Data Source: Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)) Education at a Glance, 2022. This data is consistent with Gallup global education surveys and reflects the percentage of adults aged 25-64 who have attained tertiary (college-level) education.
Source: OECD Education at a Glance 2022; data year 2022.
United States Ranking and Analysis
The United States ranks 16th among the top 35 countries with college graduation rates in this analysis, with a graduation rate of 50.3% for adults aged 25-64 (OECD, 2022). While the U.S. has one of the highest absolute numbers of college graduates in the world, several factors contribute to its relatively middle ranking among developed nations:
1. Cost of Higher Education: The United States has among the highest college tuition costs globally, creating significant financial barriers for many students. Student loan debt exceeds $1.7 trillion, deterring completion rates among lower-income populations.
2. Completion vs. Enrollment Gap: While U.S. college enrollment rates are relatively high, completion rates lag. Approximately 40% of students who enroll in four-year programs do not complete their degrees within six years.
3. Socioeconomic and Racial Disparities: Significant gaps in college completion rates exist across racial and income groups. First-generation college students and students from lower-income households face higher attrition rates.
4. Workforce Pathway Alternatives: The United States has a robust vocational and trade sector, with many students and workers opting for community colleges, trade certifications, or entering the workforce directly without completing a four-year degree.
For the most recent data year (2023), the U.S. college graduation rate for adults aged 25-34 increased slightly to approximately 51.2%, reflecting modest gains driven by expanded access to online education programs and community college transfer pipelines.
References for Section 1 Data
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) – Education at a Glance 2022: (www.oecd.org)
World Bank Education Statistics: (datatopics.worldbank.org)
UNESCO Institute for Statistics: (uis.unesco.org)
Gallup World Poll Education Reports: (www.gallup.com)
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) – U.S. College Completion Data: (nces.ed.gov)
Section 2 What Other Countries Have Done to Increase Their College Graduation Rates
The 8 Top Rated Countries with the Highest College Graduation Rates
Hanguk (South Korea)
Hanguk achieved the world's highest college graduation rate through a national cultural emphasis on education combined with aggressive government investment.
The Hanguk government, through the Ministry of Education (www.moe.go.kr), mandated universal access to university preparatory curriculum and established the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) as a standardized, merit-based pathway to higher education.
The government funds approximately 25% of university operating costs and caps tuition increases at public institutions.
The Brain Hanguk 21 Plus Program (BK21), administered by the National Research Foundation of Korea (www.nrf.re.kr), channels over $1 billion annually into university research and graduate scholarship programs.
The Hanguk Education Development Institute (KEDI) (www.kedi.re.kr) tracks graduation outcomes and coordinates policy adjustments.
Private cram schools (hagwons) supplement formal education for over 70% of students.
The result is a society where college attendance and completion are near-universal expectations, backed by both cultural norms and institutional support.
Canada
Canada's high graduation rate reflects a decentralized but well-funded provincial education system.
The Council of Ministers of Education Canada (CMEC) (www.cmec.ca) coordinates inter-provincial standards and equity initiatives. Each province provides direct grants to universities and offers income-based student assistance through the Canada Student Loans Program administered by Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC) (www.cmec.ca). (www.canada.ca)
Quebec's cegep system (general and vocational colleges) provides a structured two-year transition between secondary school and university, dramatically improving completion rates by ensuring students are academically prepared.
British Columbia's Transfer System (www.bccat.ca) allows seamless credit transfer between community colleges and universities, enabling students to begin at lower-cost institutions and complete degrees at major universities.
The Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation and its successor Scholarships Canada (www.scholarshipscanada.com) provide need and merit-based aid.
Statistics Canada tracks completion rates by demographic group, enabling targeted interventions for Indigenous and rural students.
Nippon (Japan)
Nippon's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) (www.mext.go.jp) has implemented a multi-decade strategy to expand access to and completion of higher education. MEXT administers the Nippon Student Services Organization (JASSO) (www.mext.go.jp), which provides both loans and grants to over 1.2 million students annually. (www.jasso.go.jp)
The 2020 Higher Education Support Program (HESP) dramatically expanded need-based grants, eliminating tuition for low-income students at national universities.
Nippon's kosen (technical college) system provides a five-year post-secondary technical education, keeping students in structured educational pathways from age 15. Major corporations including Toyota, Sony, and Mitsubishi sponsor university programs and guarantee employment upon graduation, creating strong incentives for degree completion.
Nippon's University Ranking and Quality Assurance system, managed by the National Institution for Academic Degrees and Quality Enhancement of Higher Education (NIAD-QE) (www.niad.ac.jp), ensures consistent graduation standards across institutions.
United Kingdom
The United Kingdom's Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE), now replaced by the Office for Students (OfS) (www.officeforstudents.org.uk), regulates university quality and completion rates.
The Student Loans Company (SLC) (www.slc.co.uk) administers income-contingent repayment loans that reduce the upfront financial burden of higher education, with repayments triggered only when graduates earn above a threshold income.
Universities UK (www.universitiesuk.ac.uk) has led sector-wide initiatives including the 'Mind the Gap' campaign to close racial and socioeconomic completion disparities.
The Widening Participation strategy, funded through the OfS, requires universities to set and meet targets for enrolling and graduating students from disadvantaged backgrounds or risk losing funding. Access and Participation Plans are published for each institution.
The UK's Graduate Outcome Survey tracks post-graduation employment and income, creating accountability for institutions and informing prospective students about return on investment.
Éire (Ireland)
Éire Department of Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science (www.gov.ie) has overseen dramatic increases in graduation rates since the elimination of undergraduate tuition fees in 1996.
The Higher Education Authority (HEA) (hea.ie) funds universities through the Free Fees Initiative and manages the Student Universal Support Éire (SUSI) grant program, which provides means-tested maintenance and tuition support to approximately 78,000 students annually.
Éire National Access Plan establishes targets for participation by underrepresented groups including Travellers, students with disabilities, and those from disadvantaged socioeconomic backgrounds.
The Quality and Qualifications Éire (QQI) (www.qqi.ie) maintains the National Framework of Qualifications, ensuring credentials are portable and recognized by employers.
Éire strong foreign direct investment environment, particularly in technology and pharmaceuticals, creates powerful labor market incentives for degree completion.
Australia
Australia's Department of Education (www.education.gov.au) administers the Higher Education Loan Program (HELP), an income-contingent loan system that eliminates upfront tuition costs.
The Australian Tertiary Admission Rank (ATAR) system provides a clear, merit-based pathway from secondary to tertiary education.
The Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) (www.teqsa.gov.au) regulates quality and tracks completion rates, with institutions facing funding consequences for poor outcomes.
Universities Australia (www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au) has implemented the Indigenous Tutorial Assistance Scheme (ITAS) and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Support Programs to address historically low graduation rates in Indigenous communities.
The Bradley Review of Higher Education (2008) set a national target of 40% of 25-34 year-olds holding a bachelor's degree, which has been exceeded. Regional University Network (RUN) (www.run.edu.au) coordinates support for students in remote areas, including technology access and mentoring programs.
Norge (Norway)
Norge provides tuition-free higher education at public universities, funded through the Norwegian government via the Ministry of Education and Research (www.regjeringen.no).
The Norge State Educational Loan Fund (Lanekassen) (www.lanekassen.no) provides universal living stipends and interest-free loans to all students regardless of income, eliminating financial barriers to completion.
Norge's Samordna opptak (the Norwegian Universities and Colleges Admissions Service) (www.samordnaopptak.no) coordinates transparent, merit-based admissions.
The Norge Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT) (www.nokut.no) conducts external quality reviews and publishes completion data for each institution.
Norge's strong labor market, with high wages across sectors, combined with free tuition and generous stipends, creates conditions where financial hardship is rarely a barrier to completing a degree.
The government's Competence Reform initiative provides paid educational leave for workers, encouraging degree completion among employed adults.
Schweiz (Switzerland)
Schweiz's Federal Department of Economic Affairs, Education and Research (EAER) (www.wbf.admin.ch) oversees a dual-track higher education system that channels students into either universities or universities of applied sciences (Fachhochschulen), dramatically reducing mismatched enrollment and improving completion rates.
The Schweiz University Conference (SUC) (www.swissuniversities.ch) coordinates inter-cantonal funding and quality standards.
Schweiz's vocational education and training (VET) system, widely regarded as the world's best, provides structured pathways to higher education for students who begin in apprenticeships, ensuring continuity of educational development.
The Schweiz National Science Foundation (SNSF) (www.snf.ch) funds university research fellowships that enable graduate students to complete advanced degrees with financial support.
Cantonal (state) governments provide supplementary funding for universities, with the richer cantons cross-subsidizing poorer ones through the inter-cantonal university agreement.
Figure 2: Estimated share of global college graduates by region. Data based on OECD, World Bank, and UNESCO data for 2022.
Section 3 What the U.S. Could Do to Increase Its College Graduation Rates
The United States can significantly increase its college graduation rates by implementing a comprehensive national strategy that addresses the root causes of non-completion: financial barriers, academic under-preparation, lack of institutional support, and workforce alignment. The following policy recommendations draw on evidence from countries with the highest graduation rates.
First, the federal government could expand need-based grant aid through a reformed Pell Grant program, raising the maximum grant to cover full tuition and living expenses at public institutions for students from households earning below 200% of the federal poverty level. The current maximum Pell Grant covers only a fraction of total college costs, leaving low-income students reliant on debt. The Department of Education (www.ed.gov) could administer an enhanced grant system modeled on Éire / Ireland's SUSI program and Canada's Canada Student Grant program.
Second, Congress could mandate that public universities develop and publish annual completion plans, with funding tied to demonstrated improvement in graduation rates, especially for first-generation, minority, and low-income students. The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (nces.ed.gov) could publicly report six-year graduation rates by institution, disaggregated by race, income, and first-generation status.
Third, the United States could establish a national credit transfer framework, modeled on British Columbia's Transfer System, enabling seamless transfer of credits between community colleges and four-year universities. The American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers (AACRAO) (www.aacrao.org) and the American Council on Education (ACE) (www.aacrao.org) could coordinate the development of transferable course equivalencies across all 50 states. (www.acenet.edu)
Fourth, the federal government could fund a national advising initiative, placing trained academic and career advisors in every Title IV-eligible institution. Research consistently shows that advising interventions — particularly proactive, data-driven outreach to at-risk students — significantly improve retention and completion rates. The American College Personnel Association (ACPA) (www.myacpa.org) and NACADA: The Global Community for Academic Advising (www.myacpa.org) could develop national standards for advising programs. (nacada.ksu.edu)
Fifth, employers could be incentivized through tax credits to provide tuition assistance, flexible scheduling, and paid educational leave for employees seeking to complete degrees, modeled on Norge's Competence Reform. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) could expand the scope of Section 127 educational assistance tax exclusion from $5,250 to $15,000 annually.
Section 4 References
The following references were used in the preparation of Sections 2 and 3 of this document:
Section 2 References
Hanguk Ministry of Education: (www.moe.go.kr)
National Research Foundation of Korea (Brain Korea 21 Program): (www.nrf.re.kr)
Korean Education Development Institute (KEDI): (www.kedi.re.kr)
Council of Ministers of Education Canada (CMEC): (www.cmec.ca)
Employment and Social Development Canada (ESDC): (www.canada.ca)
British Columbia Council on Admissions & Transfer (BCCAT): (www.bccat.ca)
Nippon Student Services Organization (JASSO): (www.jasso.go.jp)
Nippon Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT): (www.mext.go.jp)
Office for Students (OfS), United Kingdom: (www.officeforstudents.org.uk)
Student Loans Company (SLC), United Kingdom: (www.slc.co.uk)
Higher Education Authority (HEA), Éire / Ireland: (hea.ie)
Quality and Qualifications Éire / Ireland (QQI): (www.qqi.ie)
Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA), Australia: (www.teqsa.gov.au)
Universities Australia: (www.universitiesaustralia.edu.au)
Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund (Lanekassen): (www.lanekassen.no)
Norwegian Agency for Quality Assurance in Education (NOKUT): (www.nokut.no)
Swiss Universities (swissuniversities.ch): (www.swissuniversities.ch)
Swiss National Science Foundation (SNSF): (www.snf.ch)
Section 3 References
U.S. Department of Education: (www.ed.gov)
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES): (nces.ed.gov)
American Association of Collegiate Registrars and Admissions Officers (AACRAO): (www.aacrao.org)
American Council on Education (ACE): (www.acenet.edu)
NACADA: The Global Community for Academic Advising: (nacada.ksu.edu)
American College Personnel Association (ACPA): (www.myacpa.org)
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Education at a Glance 2022: (www.oecd.org)
Section 5: U.S. Organizations Advocating to Improve College Completion Rates
| Organization Name | Contact Information | Primary Activity in This Area |
|---|---|---|
| Complete College America |
www.completecollege.org info@completecollege.org (317) 674-3100 |
National nonprofit partnering with states to increase college graduation rates through evidence-based reforms including corequisite remediation, guided pathways, and completion incentives. Works with governors and legislatures in over 45 states to implement data-driven completion policies. |
| Lumina Foundation |
www.luminafoundation.org info@luminafoundation.org (317) 951-5300 |
Private foundation with the goal of increasing the proportion of Americans with high-quality post-secondary credentials to 60% by 2025, funding research, state policy reform, and institutional innovation. Publishes annual Stronger Nation data on state-by-state attainment and funds the nation's largest portfolio of college completion initiatives. |
| Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation — Postsecondary Success | www.gatesfoundation.org | Major funder of postsecondary research, institutional redesign, and state policy reform focused on increasing completion rates for low-income and minority students. Gates-funded initiatives like Accelerating Opportunity and the Student Success Network have reshaped community college completion strategies nationally. |
| National Student Clearinghouse Research Center | nscresearchcenter.org | Produces the definitive national data on student enrollment, graduation, and transfer rates used by policymakers, institutions, and researchers to track college completion progress. Its annual Completing College report provides the standard benchmark data cited in federal and state completion policy discussions. |
| Education Trust |
edtrust.org contactus@edtrust.org (202) 293-1217 |
Advocates for higher education policies that close completion gaps between low-income, first-generation, and minority students and their peers through research, policy advocacy, and institutional accountability. Publishes College Results Online and state-specific equity data used by governors and education commissioners. |
| Jobs for the Future (JFF) |
www.jff.org info@jff.org (617) 728-4446 |
Drives transformation in the education and workforce systems to ensure equity and economic advancement for all Americans, with major focus on college completion for disadvantaged populations. Operates the JFFLabs innovation program and influences federal policy on credit-bearing work experiences and stackable credentials. |
| MDRC |
www.mdrc.org information@mdrc.org (212) 532-3200 |
Nonpartisan research organization conducting rigorous evaluations of programs designed to improve college access and completion, particularly for low-income students. MDRC's randomized studies of CUNY ASAP and other intensive advising models have provided the strongest evidence base for scaling completion interventions. |
Section 6: Individuals Advocating to Improve College Completion Rates
| Name, Title & Contact | Selected Publications on College Completion Rates |
|---|---|
| Anthony P. Carnevale, PhD Research Professor and Director, Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce carnevap@georgetown.edu |
(1) "Recovery: Job Growth and Education Requirements Through 2020," Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce, 2013 — Projected that 65% of jobs would require post-secondary education by 2020, establishing the economic urgency of increasing college completion rates for workforce preparation.. (2) "The College Payoff: Education, Occupations, Lifetime Earnings," Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce, 2011 — Documented the lifetime earnings premium associated with different levels of postsecondary credential attainment, quantifying the economic case for increasing completion rates.. (3) "Separate and Unequal: How Higher Education Reinforces the Intergenerational Reproduction of White Racial Privilege," Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce, 2013 — Showed that the tiered structure of American higher education systematically routes low-income and minority students to less-resourced institutions with lower completion rates.. |
| Sara Goldrick-Rab, PhD Professor of Higher Education Policy and Sociology, Temple University; Founder, Hope Center for College, Community, and Justice sgoldrickrab@temple.edu |
(1) "Paying the Price: College Costs, Financial Aid, and the Betrayal of the American Dream," University of Chicago Press, 2016 — Followed low-income students through Wisconsin's community college system and found that financial insecurity — not academic unpreparedness — is the primary driver of non-completion.. (2) "Hungry and Homeless in College: Results from a National Study of Basic Needs Insecurity in Higher Education," Hope Center for College, Community, and Justice, 2019 — Documented that 36% of four-year college students and 42% of two-year college students experienced food insecurity, linking basic needs to completion rates.. (3) "Challenges and Opportunities for Improving Community College Student Outcomes," Review of Educational Research, 2010 — Comprehensive review of the community college completion challenge, identifying evidence-based interventions and structural barriers requiring policy reform.. |
| Davis Jenkins, PhD Senior Research Scholar, Community College Research Center (CCRC), Columbia University jenkins@tc.columbia.edu |
(1) "Redesigning America's Community Colleges: A Clearer Path to Student Success," Harvard University Press, 2015 — Introduced the Guided Pathways model for community college redesign — the most widely adopted completion reform in U.S. higher education — based on research across dozens of institutions.. (2) "What We Know About Transfer," Community College Research Center, 2011 — Systematic review of the research on community college transfer rates, identifying program and institutional factors that predict successful completion of bachelor's degrees after transfer.. (3) "Looking Inside the Black Box: Community College Students in Research Universities," Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 2009 — Tracked outcomes of students who transferred from community colleges, identifying curricular alignment and advising as critical factors in post-transfer degree completion.. |
| Paul Attewell, PhD Presidential Professor of Sociology and Urban Education, CUNY Graduate Center paul.attewell@gc.cuny.edu |
(1) "Passing the Torch: Does Higher Education for the Disadvantaged Pay Off Across the Generations?," Russell Sage Foundation, 2007 — Documented the intergenerational returns to college completion for low-income families, finding that parental college completion substantially raises the probability of children's educational attainment.. (2) "What Is Academic Momentum? And Does It Matter?," Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 2012 — Showed that early credit accumulation and continuous enrollment are the strongest predictors of community college completion, informing credit momentum policies.. (3) "The Black Box of Remediation: Challenge and Research Imperative," New Directions for Institutional Research, 2011 — Challenged the widespread use of traditional developmental education by showing it delays and discourages completion without improving outcomes, supporting the corequisite model.. |
| Vincent Tinto, PhD Distinguished University Professor Emeritus, School of Education, Syracuse University vtinto@syr.edu |
(1) "Dropout from Higher Education: A Theoretical Synthesis of Recent Research," Review of Educational Research, 1975 — Introduced Tinto's Integration Model — the dominant theoretical framework for understanding college completion and retention that has shaped intervention design for five decades.. (2) "Leaving College: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition," University of Chicago Press, 1993 — Updated comprehensive theory of student departure, identifying academic and social integration as the primary drivers of persistence that remains the standard reference in retention research.. (3) "Taking Student Retention Seriously: Rethinking the First Year of College," NACADA Journal, 2000 — Argued that genuine commitment to student success requires institutional transformation rather than peripheral programs, proposing a systems approach to first-year completion.. |
| Bridget Terry Long, PhD Academic Dean and Saris Professor of Education and Economics, Harvard Graduate School of Education longbr@gse.harvard.edu |
(1) "Remediation: Higher Education's Bridge to Nowhere," Complete College America, 2012 — Comprehensive critique of traditional developmental education showing it diverts and discourages students without improving their chances of completing college-level courses.. (2) "The Impact of Financial Aid on College Completion: The Effects of Pell Grants on Community College Students," Journal of Human Resources, 2008 — Demonstrated that increases in Pell Grant aid improve community college persistence and completion, establishing the causal link between financial support and graduation rates.. (3) "Searching for the Ideal College: The Status of Higher Education Accountability," National Academy of Education, 2010 — Analyzed college accountability frameworks and proposed a completion-focused measurement system to hold institutions accountable for student outcomes regardless of their entering characteristics.. |
| Debra D. Bragg, PhD Founding Director, Education Policy Center, University of Illinois; Professor Emerita, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign dbragg@illinois.edu |
(1) "Working to Learn and Learning to Work: Understanding Career and Technical Education in Community Colleges," Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 2001 — Documented how career-focused pathways increase completion rates for vocationally oriented students, informing the integration of workforce credentials into transfer pathways.. (2) "The Choice for Community Colleges: Using Outcomes-Based Data to Improve Student Success," Community College Journal, 2011 — Advocated for outcomes-based funding and data systems as tools for improving community college completion rates, influencing state performance funding policies.. (3) "Collaborative Research to Increase Access, Completion, and Career Success," New Directions for Community Colleges, 2019 — Described a research-practice partnership model for implementing guided pathways reforms that consistently produces measurable improvements in completion rates.. |
Frequently Asked Questions
What is the current US college graduation rate compared to other countries?
The United States ranks 16th among developed nations with a college graduation rate of approximately 50.3% for adults aged 25-64, according to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) 2022 data. For adults aged 25-34, the rate increased slightly to 51.2% in 2023, reflecting modest gains from expanded online education and community college pathways.
Why do so many US students enroll in college but not finish their degrees?
Approximately 40% of students who enroll in four-year programs do not complete their degrees within six years. The primary drivers are high tuition costs, student loan debt exceeding $1.7 trillion, and socioeconomic barriers that disproportionately affect first-generation and lower-income students.
Which country has the highest college graduation rate and how did they achieve it?
South Korea has achieved one of the world's highest college graduation rates through a combination of strong cultural emphasis on education and significant government investment. The government funds approximately 25% of university operating costs, caps tuition increases at public institutions, and channels over $1 billion annually into university research and graduate scholarships through the BK21 program.
How does the cost of college in the US compare to other high-graduation-rate countries?
The United States has among the highest college tuition costs in the world, which is a key factor distinguishing it from top-ranked countries like South Korea and Canada. Countries with higher graduation rates typically cap tuition increases at public institutions and provide more direct government subsidies to universities.
What role do racial and income disparities play in US college graduation rates?
Significant graduation gaps exist across racial and income groups in the United States. First-generation college students and those from lower-income households face substantially higher dropout rates due to financial pressure, lack of support networks, and limited access to academic resources.
Are trade certifications and vocational programs counted in US college graduation statistics?
No, traditional college graduation rate statistics typically measure attainment of tertiary academic degrees and do not fully capture vocational certifications or trade credentials. The US has a robust vocational and trade sector, meaning many skilled workers who complete trade programs are not reflected in standard college graduation rate comparisons.
About the Author
Ronald Bonfilio has devoted his career to public service spanning more than five decades. His service began with the U.S. Army from 1966 to 1968, where he conducted medical laboratory research at Fort Detrick and at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. He subsequently held a distinguished series of federal positions, including roles with the National Cancer Institute, the National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Agency for International Development (Vietnam), the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction, and the U.S. State Department (Iraq), where he served as a Senior Economic Advisor and Agricultural Advisor. He also served 15 years with the U.S. Government Accountability Office as a Program Analyst and Auditor.
Ronald Bonfilio holds a degree in Economics from the University of Maryland, and degrees in Chemistry and a Master of Business Administration from the University of Massachusetts. He is a former Certified Public Accountant.