How to Reduce Income Inequality

Section 1 Top 35 Countries with Lowest Income Inequality

Lowest Income Inequality by World Region — Gini Coefficient Comparison

Source year: 2024. Data compiled from Gallup global survey datasets and World Bank income distribution statistics.

The United States ranks 34 in this comparison due to a Gini coefficient near 0.41 reflecting higher income dispersion than most Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries.

The U.S. has this ranking because of several structural factors that produce higher income inequality relative to peer nations. These include a comparatively less generous social safety net, lower union density (approximately 10% of workers), higher healthcare costs borne by individuals, and a more regressive effective tax burden relative to high-ranked countries. Unlike the top-ranked nations, the U.S. lacks universal health coverage, does not provide free higher education, and has lower minimum wages relative to median earnings. The income gap between the top 10% and bottom 10% of earners in the United States is among the largest in the developed world. The most recent data (2023) indicates a U.S. Gini coefficient of approximately 39.8, reflecting minimal change despite policy discussions in Congress.

Sources: Gallup World Bank OECD (www.gallup.com) (www.worldbank.org) (www.oecd.org)

Section 2 What Other Countries Have Done to Lower Income Inequality

Danmark (Denmark)

Danmark achieves extremely low income inequality through a unique "flexicurity" model combining flexible labor markets with generous social security. The Ministry of Employment (www.bm.dk) oversees the Danish Active Labour Market Policy (ALMP), which includes job placement assistance, skills training, and wage subsidies for the unemployed.

The Danmark September Compromise of 1899 established collective bargaining frameworks still used today under the Ministry of Employment . (bm.dk)

The Danmark Tax Reform Act of 2012 strengthened progressive taxation administered by the Danmark Tax Agency . (Skattestyrelsen) (www.skat.dk) administers a steeply progressive income tax with a top marginal rate exceeding 55%. (skat.dk)

Danmark's flexicurity system combines flexible labor markets with generous unemployment insurance covering up to 90 percent of prior wages for two years, paired with mandatory active labor market participation programs. This model is administered jointly by the Danmark Agency for Labour Market and Recruitment and municipal job centers, enabling rapid re-employment while maintaining worker income security. The Danmark Agency for Labour Market and Recruitment (STAR) (www.star.dk) provides active labor market programs including subsidized employment and adult education. Social Assistance (Kontanthjælp) provides income support for those unable to work.

The Danmark Confederation of Trade Unions (LO/FH) (www.fho.dk) and the Confederation of Danmark Employers (DA) (www.da.dk) negotiate sectoral collective agreements covering approximately 70% of Danish workers, setting industry-wide wage floors.

Danmark's universal health care system through Danish Regions (www.regioner.dk) eliminates medical cost as a driver of inequality.

Free higher education at Danish universities including the University of Copenhagen (www.ku.dk) ensures educational access regardless of family income.

The Early Retirement Scheme (Efterlon) and the ATP supplementary pension program (www.atp.dk) provide income security for older workers.

Danmark's Child Benefit (Børnecheck) administered by Udbetaling Danmark (www.borger.dk) provides direct cash transfers to families with children.

Suomi (Finland)

The Comprehensive School Reform Act of 1968 created equal national education standards overseen by the Suomi National Agency for Education . (oph.fi)

The 1993 Finnish income tax reform strengthened progressive national taxation administered by the Ministry of Finance . (vm.fi)

Suomi provides universal early childhood education and care to all children from birth through primary school entry, with family income-based fees capped at low levels. The national basic income pilot conducted from 2017 to 2018 tested unconditional transfers for unemployed citizens and produced evidence of improved well-being and employment transitions.

Norge (Norway)

The National Insurance Act of 1967 created universal social insurance administered by the Norge Labour and Welfare Administration . (nav.no)

The Government Pension Fund Global established in 1990 redistributes petroleum wealth through public investment programs managed by Norges Bank Investment Management . (nbim.no)

Norge's universal higher education system is funded through the Norge State Educational Loan Fund, providing grants and interest-free loans to all qualifying students regardless of family income. Parental leave of up to 49 weeks at full salary is available to both parents, supporting gender wage equality and child development.

Deutschland (Germany)

The Co-Determination Act of 1976 requires worker representation on corporate supervisory boards.

The Vocational Training Act of 1969 established Deutschland's dual apprenticeship training system coordinated through chambers of commerce . (dihk.de)

Deutschland's statutory minimum wage, introduced in 2015 under the Minimum Wage Act and adjusted biannually by the Minimum Wage Commission, reduced low-pay employment by approximately 1.3 million workers within four years. The federal Short-Time Work allowance (Kurzarbeit) program, administered by the Federal Employment Agency, subsidizes wages during economic downturns, preventing mass layoffs and preserving household income stability.

Canada

The Canada Child Benefit created in 2016 provides direct payments to families administered by Employment and Social Development Canada . (esdc.gc.ca)

The Employment Insurance Act of 1996 funds unemployment benefits and workforce retraining.

Canada's single-payer provincial healthcare systems, governed under the Canada Health Act of 1984, eliminate medical debt as a driver of household financial distress. The National Housing Strategy launched in 2017 commits over CAD 82 billion to affordable housing over ten years, targeting the lowest-income renters through the Canada Housing Benefit rental subsidy.

Nippon (Japan)

The National Pension Act of 1959 created universal retirement income coverage administered by the Ministry of Health Labour and Welfare . (mhlw.go.jp)

Nippon's compressed wage structure is reinforced through annual Shunto collective wage negotiations coordinated between major employer associations and enterprise unions, historically producing coordinated wage increases that reduce inter-firm income dispersion.

The Child and Childcare Support Act of 2012 expanded affordable childcare access, supporting maternal labor force participation.

Hanguk (South Korea)

The National Basic Livelihood Security Act of 1999 established a nationwide safety-net program administered by the Ministry of Health and Welfare . (mohw.go.kr)

Hanguk's National Health Insurance program provides universal healthcare coverage through a single insurer, the National Health Insurance Service, funded by income-proportional contributions from employees and employers.

The Employment Insurance Act of 1993 provides unemployment benefits, maternity leave, and vocational training, reaching over 14 million workers.

Nederland (Netherlands)

The Participation Act of 2015 expanded employment participation and social support programs administered by the Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment . (government.nl)

The Nederland maintains one of the highest social housing ratios in the OECD, with housing associations (woningcorporaties) managing over two million social rental units regulated by the Authority for Housing Corporations. The Dutch minimum wage, indexed to collective bargaining agreements, is reviewed biannually and applies to all workers including part-time and temporary staff.

Additional Countries with Low Inequality

Slovenia

Slovenia has achieved low income inequality through a combination of strong labor market protections and a comprehensive social safety net. The Employment Relationships Act (Zakon o delovnih razmerjih) mandates strong worker protections, minimum wage standards, and limits on precarious employment.

The Slovenian government operates through the Ministry of Labour, Family, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities (www.mddsz.gov.si), which administers a network of social transfer payments that significantly reduce the gap between market income and disposable income.

Progressive income taxation through the Financial Administration of the Republic of Slovenia (www.fu.gov.si) ensures redistribution from high-income to low-income earners.

Slovenia's trade union density remains above 20%, with the Confederation of Trade Unions of Slovenia (ZSSS) (www.zsss.si) negotiating collective bargaining agreements that cover the majority of workers.

Public expenditure on education is relatively high, ensuring access to quality schooling regardless of family income.

The National Institute of Public Health (www.nijz.si) oversees universal health care access. The Institute of Macroeconomic Analysis and Development (www.umar.gov.si) regularly publishes assessments of inequality trends.

Active labor market policies include subsidized employment, training programs, and job placement assistance through the Employment Service of Slovenia (www.ess.gov.si).

Česko (Czech Republic)

The Česko maintains low income inequality through wage policies, collective bargaining, and a well-developed public service infrastructure.

The Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (www.mpsv.cz) oversees income support programs, social insurance, and labor regulation.

The State Social Support Act governs child benefits, housing allowances, and parenting allowances that assist low-income families.

The Act on Employment mandates equal pay and prohibits wage discrimination.

The Česko -Moravian Confederation of Trade Unions (CMKOS) (www.cmkos.cz) represents workers and negotiates wage floors in major industrial sectors.

The Česko Social Security Administration (www.cssz.cz) administers pension and disability benefits. The government's National Employment Plan focuses on workforce participation, retraining programs, and reducing long-term unemployment.

www.msmt.czČesko public universities charge no tuition fees, ensuring higher education is accessible to students from all economic backgrounds, through the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports ().

Universal health coverage through the Česko health insurance system eliminates a major source of financial hardship for low-income households.

The Česko Statistical Office (www.czso.cz) monitors household income distribution and publishes regular reports to guide policy.

The Česko Investment and Business Development Agency (CzechInvest) (www.czechinvest.org) promotes regional economic development to reduce geographic income disparities.

Slovensko (Slovakia)

Slovensko addresses income inequality through its comprehensive social insurance system and progressive fiscal policy.

The Social Insurance Agency (Sociálna poisťovňa) (www.socpoist.sk) manages pension, unemployment, sickness, and accident insurance for workers.

The Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family (www.employment.gov.sk) administers social benefits and coordinates income redistribution programs.

Slovensko's Labor Code provides strong employment protections, mandatory severance pay, and limits on dismissal for economic reasons.

The Act on the Minimum Wage sets a legally binding floor on earnings.

The Confederation of Trade Unions of the Slovak Republic (KOZ SR) (www.kozsr.sk) represents workers in tripartite negotiations with employers and the government.

www.minedu.skSlovensko offers free public higher education, ensuring access to university degrees regardless of parental income through the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport ().

The Maternity and Parental Allowance programs provide financial support to families with young children, reducing the income penalty associated with child-rearing.

The Slovensko Investment and Trade Development Agency (www.sario.sk) promotes investment in less-developed regions to reduce geographic income inequality.

The Financial Administration of the Slovak Republic (www.financnasprava.sk) enforces progressive income tax and monitors tax compliance to ensure the wealthy pay their legally required share.

Беларусь (Belarus)

Belarus maintains relatively low income inequality through state-directed economic policies, strong public ownership of enterprises, and extensive social programs administered by the government.

The Ministry of Labour and Social Protection (www.mintrud.gov.by) oversees wage regulation, social transfers, and labor market programs.

State ownership of major enterprises through the State Property Committee (www.gki.gov.by) allows the government to influence wage structures across large portions of the economy. Administratively set minimum wages and wage indexation tied to inflation protect lower-paid workers from real income erosion.

Universal access to health care through the Ministry of Health (www.minzdrav.gov.by) prevents catastrophic medical expenses from generating economic hardship.

Free public higher education through the Ministry of Education (www.edu.gov.by) maintains intergenerational mobility and prevents the entrenchment of educational inequality.

The state enterprise system, coordinated by the Council of Ministers (www.government.by), sustains employment in regions that might otherwise face structural unemployment.

Housing subsidies and utilities subsidies reduce the cost burden for lower-income families.

The National Academy of Sciences (www.nasb.by) conducts research on social policy effectiveness.

The State Labour Inspectorate monitors compliance with wage regulations and labor standards throughout the economy.

Ukrayina (Ukraine)

Ukrayina, prior to the disruptions of the 2022 conflict, maintained relatively moderate income inequality through labor market protections and social assistance programs.

The Ministry of Social Policy (www.msp.gov.ua) coordinates social protection, unemployment insurance, and child benefit programs.

The State Employment Service (www.dcz.gov.ua) administers job placement, vocational training, and unemployment benefits.

Ukrayina's Labor Code provides minimum wage protections, mandatory severance, and collective bargaining rights.

The Federation of Trade Unions of Ukrayina (www.fpsu.org.ua) participates in national tripartite negotiations on wages and working conditions.

Free public higher education at state universities through the Ministry of Education and Science (www.mon.gov.ua) ensures continued access to tertiary qualifications for students from lower-income households.

The housing subsidy program administered through local state administrations provides income support to households spending a high share of income on utilities.

The Pension Fund of Ukrayina (www.pfu.gov.ua) administers old-age pensions and disability benefits.

The State Tax Service (www.tax.gov.ua) enforces progressive income taxation. Active labor market programs provide training and re-skilling to reduce long-term unemployment.

Iceland

Iceland has achieved one of the world's lowest levels of income inequality through high trade union coverage, strong wage bargaining, and active redistribution through taxation.

The Confederation of Icelandic Employers (SA) and the Confederation of Icelandic Labour (ASI) (www.asi.is) collectively negotiate wages for the vast majority of Icelandic workers, compressing the wage distribution from the bottom up.

The Ministry of Finance and Economic Affairs (www.fjarmalaraduneyti.is) oversees a progressive income tax system that redistributes income from higher to lower earners.

The Directorate of Labour (www.vinnumalastofnun.is) administers unemployment insurance, active labor market programs, and vocational training. Iceland's social democratic welfare state provides universal health care through Landspitali and regional health services (www.heilsugaeslan.is), universal public education through the Ministry of Education and Children (www.government.is/ministries/ministry-of-education), and generous family allowances.

The Income Tax Act provides for substantial personal allowances that eliminate tax burdens on the lowest earners. The Statistics Iceland office (www.statice.is) monitors household income distribution.

Iceland's Parental Leave Act provides generous paid parental leave for both mothers and fathers, reducing the gender wage gap.

The Directorate of Tax Investigation (www.skatturinn.is) actively monitors and enforces tax compliance.

Belgique (Belgium)

Belgique reduces income inequality through comprehensive social protection, strong wage bargaining, and high public investment in services.

The National Employment Office (ONEM/RVA) (www.onem.be) administers generous unemployment benefits with long duration relative to other OECD countries.

The Federal Public Service Employment, Labour and Social Dialogue (www.employment.belgium.be) regulates labor markets and oversees collective bargaining.

The Central Economic Council and National Labour Council serve as official bodies for tripartite consultation between government, employers, and labor unions.

The Confederation of Belgique Trade Unions (FGTB/ABVV) (www.fgtb.be) and the Confederation of Christian Trade Unions (CSC/ACV) (www.acv-csc.be) together represent a majority of Belgian workers. Automatic wage indexation through the Index mechanism ties wages to inflation, preventing real wage declines for the lowest earners.

The Federal Public Service Finance (www.fin.fgov.be) administers a highly progressive income tax with substantial child and family deductions.

Belgique's healthcare system through the National Institute for Health and Disability Insurance (INAMI/RIZIV) (www.riziv.fgov.be) provides near-universal coverage.

The Service for Poverty Reduction and Social Economy coordinates anti-poverty initiatives.

Free higher education through university grants administered by ARES (www.ares-ac.be) ensures broad access to tertiary qualifications.

References:

OECD Better Life Index: https://www.oecdbetterlifeindex.org/

International Labour Organization: https://www.ilo.org/global/topics/wages/minimum-wages/

European Trade Union Confederation: https://www.etuc.org/

World Bank Global Inequality Data: https://data.worldbank.org/topic/poverty

IMF Fiscal Policy and Inequality: https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/Inequality

UNICEF Child Poverty: https://www.unicef.org/social-policy/child-poverty

UNESCO Education Access: https://uis.unesco.org/

WHO Universal Health Coverage: https://www.who.int/health-topics/universal-health-coverage

Section 3 What the U.S. Could Do to Reduce Income Inequality

Expand the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) administered by the Internal Revenue Service to increase after-tax earnings for low-income households. Danmark's model of refundable tax credits has been shown to raise disposable income for the bottom quintile by up to 15 percent.

2. Increase the federal minimum wage indexed to inflation and regional cost of living. Deutschland introduced its statutory minimum wage in 2015 under the Minimum Wage Act, raising wages for 3.7 million workers and reducing the low-wage sector share of employment.

3. Expand universal early childhood education programs funded through the Department of Education. Suomi's universal pre-primary education, available to all children from age five, is credited with equalizing cognitive development outcomes across income groups.

4. Create national apprenticeship initiatives coordinated by the Department of Labor and private employers. Deutschland's dual apprenticeship system, governed by the Vocational Training Act of 1969, integrates school-based and workplace training, achieving youth unemployment rates among the lowest in the OECD.

5. Expand Pell Grants and tuition support for low-income students, modeled on Norge's universal higher education funding administered by the Norwegian State Educational Loan Fund, which provides interest-free loans and grants to all qualifying students.

6. Strengthen antitrust enforcement through the Federal Trade Commission and Department of Justice to prevent monopoly concentration that suppresses wages, following the example of Deutschland's Federal Cartel Office enforcing competitive labor markets.

7. Expand affordable housing construction programs through the Department of Housing and Urban Development. The Nederland' social housing model, where 34 percent of all housing stock is public or cooperative, directly limits housing cost burdens on low-income households.

8. Provide federal childcare subsidies administered by the Department of Health and Human Services. Sverige subsidizes childcare to a maximum of 3 percent of household income, enabling high female labor force participation and reducing child poverty.

9. Expand workforce retraining programs for displaced workers. Danmark's flexicurity model combines flexible hiring and firing rules with generous unemployment benefits and active labor market programs, enabling rapid re-employment of displaced workers.

10. Increase federal infrastructure investment in economically distressed regions, following Canada's Investing in Canada Plan, which directs over CAD 180 billion to infrastructure in rural and Indigenous communities to close regional economic gaps.

11. Expand access to small business credit through the Small Business Administration. Hanguk's Credit Guarantee Fund and Technology Credit Guarantee Fund provide guarantees for small enterprise loans, supporting over 300,000 businesses annually.

12. Strengthen collective bargaining protections through the National Labor Relations Board. Sverige achieves over 70 percent unionization, maintaining compressed wage structures and limiting the pay gap between executives and workers.

13. Encourage employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs) to broaden capital ownership. Deutschland's worker co-determination law requires employee representation on corporate supervisory boards, aligning corporate decisions with worker interests.

14. Expand broadband infrastructure through the Department of Commerce to ensure universal digital access. Suomi legally defined broadband access as a universal right in 2010, mandating service to all households at minimum speeds.

15. Increase progressive taxation on extremely high incomes. Danmark and Sverige maintain top marginal income tax rates above 55 percent, combined with broad tax bases that fund universal public services.

16. Provide universal paid family leave policies. Norge provides 49 weeks of parental leave at full salary or 59 weeks at 80 percent salary, administered by the Norwegian Labour and Welfare Administration, supporting dual-earner households.

17. Expand health insurance coverage to reduce medical debt. Canada's single-payer Medicare system, established by the Canada Health Act of 1984, eliminates out-of-pocket costs for essential services, preventing medical bankruptcy.

18. Increase investment in historically underserved Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs) and Tribal Colleges to close the racial wealth gap in educational attainment and earnings.

19. Expand public transportation infrastructure to improve labor mobility, allowing low-income workers to access higher-wage job markets. The Nederland' integrated national rail and transit network enables broad geographic access to employment centers.

20. Provide tax incentives for companies investing in workforce training, modeled on Singapore's Skills Future program, which provides every adult citizen a credit for approved skills training courses, co-funded by government and employers.

21. Strengthen enforcement against wage theft through the Department of Labor. Hanguk's strict wage payment enforcement under the Labor Standards Act includes criminal penalties for employers who withhold wages.

22. Expand capital access programs for minority entrepreneurs through targeted Small Business Administration loan guarantees and technical assistance centers modeled on Canada's Business Development Bank.

23. Support regional economic development agencies in Appalachia, the Mississippi Delta, and other distressed regions, coordinating federal investment in infrastructure, education, and business formation.

24. Expand federal housing vouchers for low-income families. The Nederland' housing allowance system provides income-tested rental subsidies, ensuring no household spends more than a defined ceiling share of income on rent.

25. Provide federal student debt relief mechanisms tied to income, modeled on Australia's Higher Education Loan Program (HELP), under which repayments are automatically collected through the tax system only when earnings exceed a threshold.

26. Expand rural economic development grants through the U.S. Department of Agriculture, targeting agricultural communities facing economic transition, similar to Suomi's regional development programs administered by the Ministry of Economic Affairs.

27. Encourage profit-sharing programs in large corporations, modeled on Suomi's Personnel Funds Act, allowing employees to accumulate shares of company profits over time, broadening capital ownership among wage workers.

28. Improve national wage transparency requirements, requiring employers to publish pay ranges by occupation and prohibiting retaliation for discussing wages, modeled on Iceland's Equal Pay Standard legislation enacted in 2018.

29. Expand community development financial institutions (CDFIs) to provide affordable credit to underserved communities, modeled on the United Kingdom's Community Development Finance Association network.

30. Create federal data reporting systems tracking income inequality by race, gender, region, and occupation, enabling evidence-based policymaking modeled on Canada's Disaggregated Data Action Plan.

Section 4 References

World Bank (www.worldbank.org)

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) (www.oecd.org)

International Labour Organization (www.ilo.org)

U.S. Department of Treasury (home.treasury.gov)

U.S. Department of Labor (www.dol.gov)

Federal Trade Commission (www.ftc.gov)

Small Business Administration (www.sba.gov)

Department of Housing and Urban Development (www.hud.gov)

Section 5: U.S. Organizations Advocating to Improve Income Inequality

Section 6: Individuals Advocating to Improve Income Inequality

Frequently Asked Questions

Which countries have the lowest income inequality and what do they have in common?

Countries like Denmark consistently rank among the lowest in income inequality, with Gini coefficients well below the US figure of approximately 0.41. They share progressive tax systems with top marginal rates exceeding 55%, universal healthcare, free higher education, and strong collective bargaining coverage of 70% or more of workers.

What is the US Gini coefficient and how does it compare to peer nations?

The US Gini coefficient is approximately 39.8 as of 2023, placing it 34th among comparable nations in income equality. Most Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) peer countries have lower coefficients, reflecting more redistributive tax and social spending policies than the US currently maintains.

What is Denmark's flexicurity model and why is it effective at reducing inequality?

Denmark's flexicurity model combines flexible labor markets with generous unemployment insurance covering up to 90% of prior wages for two years, paired with mandatory active labor market participation programs. This approach lets businesses adapt their workforce while protecting workers financially, reducing the income shocks that drive inequality.

How does universal healthcare reduce income inequality?

Universal healthcare eliminates out-of-pocket medical costs as a driver of financial hardship, preventing households from falling into poverty due to illness or injury. Countries like Denmark deliver healthcare through regional systems so that medical expenses do not disproportionately burden lower-income citizens.

How does free higher education help close the income gap?

Free university education, as offered in Denmark, ensures that access to high-earning credentials is not limited by family wealth, breaking the intergenerational cycle of inequality. In the US, student debt burdens disproportionately affect lower-income families and reduce lifetime earning potential.

What specific steps could the US take to reduce income inequality?

The US could reduce income inequality by increasing union density beyond the current 10%, raising the minimum wage relative to median earnings, expanding progressive taxation, implementing universal or public healthcare, increasing access to affordable higher education, and strengthening social safety net programs such as direct child benefit payments.

About the Author

Ronald Bonfilio has devoted his career to public service spanning more than five decades. His service began with the U.S. Army from 1966 to 1968, where he conducted medical laboratory research at Fort Detrick and at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. He subsequently held a distinguished series of federal positions, including roles with the National Cancer Institute, the National Institutes of Health, the U.S. Agency for International Development (Vietnam), the Special Inspector General for Iraq Reconstruction, and the U.S. State Department (Iraq), where he served as a Senior Economic Advisor and Agricultural Advisor. He also served 15 years with the U.S. Government Accountability Office as a Program Analyst and Auditor.

Ronald Bonfilio holds a degree in Economics from the University of Maryland, and degrees in Chemistry and a Master of Business Administration from the University of Massachusetts. He is a former Certified Public Accountant.